In January 1973, the Soviet space platform Luna-21 launched, which delivered Lunokhod-2 to the surface of the Earth's satellite. The device, weighing 836 kilograms, traveled more than 40 kilometers on the Moon. How preparations for the flight and the expedition itself took place was told by the head of the development of television systems for Soviet lunar rovers, an employee of (RKS), Professor Arnold Selivanov.

"Lenta.ru": Arnold Sergeevich, how was the decision made to create a mobile automatic station for lunar exploration?

Selivanov: This is a government decision, the implementation of which requires a lot of money and considerable time. Such large projects are formed at a very high level, much higher than the head of the space equipment development department, where I worked at that time.

To make a lunar rover, it was necessary to separately develop the chassis - the chassis, the remote control system, the design of the landing platform - and solve many other unique problems. I cannot say exactly when these problems began to be solved, but it happened long before the launch of the first lunar rover, during my lifetime.

Was this his project?

I think we can say that it was Korolev who determined the ideology and began the selection of performers for individual parts of the apparatus. But others have already implemented it. Korolev’s work was continued by chief designer Georgy Babakin.

In our organization, work was carried out under the general leadership of the chief designer Mikhail Ryazansky and the director.

We made the “eyes” of the device - television systems for controlling movement and taking panoramas of the Moon, as well as radio systems for transmitting images, telemetry and control commands. In addition, we created a ground-based space communications complex and provided trajectory measurements during the flight and landing of the Luna-21 station.

Ballistics experts were able to point the station very accurately: the distance between the intended and actual landing points was only 300 meters - high accuracy for that time. This was the result of the work of specialized radio equipment and measurement techniques created at our institute.

How was the work?

It was emergency work, but in space projects it simply doesn’t happen any other way. We are always doing something new, and we need to launch this new thing within very tight deadlines, which are often dictated to us by celestial mechanics. This disciplines the team very well.

In addition, we were young, could withstand high loads and felt involved in a very important matter - space exploration.

You said that you made the “eyes” of the lunar rover. What could they see?

The lunar rovers had two television systems at once. One was intended for operational control of the apparatus. Its cameras were oriented in the direction of movement. The second provided panning in two planes: in the horizontal plane of the lunar rover - for high-precision 360-degree topographic surveys, and in the vertical plane, one camera was installed on the left and right sides - to solve navigation problems. By the way, the quality of panoramic images is quite consistent with the modern level.

The television system played a key role in controlling the movement of the device. How difficult was it to establish high-quality interaction at the human-machine level?

Lunokhod is a robot, similar to modern radio-controlled toys that can be bought in a children's store. The fundamental difference is that it is located on another celestial body at a distance of almost 400 thousand kilometers from Earth.

A radio signal travels this distance in a little over a second. As a result, the total delay in the Lunokhod's motion control loop is significantly more than three seconds: about one second is spent on the arrival of a command from the Earth, about another second on confirmation of the Lunokhod's execution of the command, and more than a second on the actual execution of the command by the Lunokhod, the reaction of the driver and actuators .

This can be compared to braking a car on a slippery road. You press the brake, and the car continues to move forward for some time.

At lunar distance it is very difficult to create a high-speed radio channel capable of transmitting moving images, like broadcast television. Instead of a dynamic television picture, the driver of the lunar rover observed only slides depicting the surface of the Moon, changing at a frequency ranging from one slide every three seconds to one slide every twenty seconds.

How does this happen in practice?

Let's say you need to move a distance of ten meters forward, you send a command and wait for it to be executed, and only after a few seconds you see an image of a new section of the surface. This makes it very easy to get into an emergency. The driver must constantly anticipate the development of events. This non-trivial task required special skills from drivers. They were tested on Earth at special “lunodromes”.

Did they reproduce lunar conditions?

There were two main lunardromes. At the stage of developing technical solutions, a mock-up of the lunar rover was tested, which moved in a hangar. It was suspended on special rubber ropes to simulate the lunar gravity, which is six times less than on Earth. In such a “weightless” state, the grip of the wheels became less, and then it was possible to understand how it would actually move on the Moon. This is how the behavior of the chassis was simulated, first without television - we participated at this stage as observers.

Then, when the lunar rover had already been created, a small “lunodrome” was built in Simferopol, near the ground control center, literally in the yard. Everything is like today in a computer game: screens, joysticks. The delay in signal transmission was simulated. There, the lunar rover was controlled not by radio, but by wires. He was driving, and a wire with a control panel was moving behind him. At this stage, our cameras were already used.

Both I and the employees of my department participated in training and controlled the lunar rover on Earth. It was important to play the role of drivers ourselves in order to understand how the television control system works in these conditions.

How did the equipment you made for Lunokhod 2 differ from Lunokhod 1?

On the first device, two television cameras were mounted very low, so they saw only a small area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe surface in front of them. At first, everyone believed that it was very important to see what was directly in front of the lunar rover in order to examine smaller objects and not miss any obstacles. Moreover, images of more distant objects were provided by four panoramic cameras - although they did not work all the time. It was necessary to stop often to look around, which noticeably reduced the speed of the first lunar rover.

These circumstances were taken into account on the second lunar rover: an additional camera was installed at the height of human growth. It turned out to be the most effective in real work. As a result, the image quality was much higher, the vehicle's speed and controllability increased significantly, and it covered a significantly greater distance in less time.

How was the driver chosen?

The Lunokhod was operated by more than one person. There were two crews. In addition to motion control, there was another control loop. Since you cannot install a very powerful transmitter on Lunokhod-2, you had to make an antenna directed towards the Earth with a narrow beam. The antenna was also on the drive. In some cases, when driving over uneven terrain, the direction of the antenna shifted significantly, and it was necessary to return it back to the desired sector. There was even such a position - a directional antenna operator, and there was a special second joystick to control it.
Thus, the crew consisted of five people: driver, commander, navigator, highly directional antenna operator and flight engineer. All of them were specially selected for this purpose, they were psychologically prepared for management.

What was the psychological part of the preparation?

For example, one thought was constantly conveyed to them: “Dear comrades, keep in mind that you have been entrusted with an invaluable spacecraft, and therefore treat it very carefully, and at the slightest suspicion that an emergency situation will arise, turn it off.”

Between you and me, we went a little too far, and this led to stress. The drivers were in a tense state, and after a certain time they had to be changed.

This was known in advance, so the management team had its own psychologists and doctors. Drivers had their blood pressure taken and their condition monitored. They were treated almost like astronauts.

Did you select people with perfect health?

Cosmonauts are selected based on their physical characteristics, but here the flexibility of the nervous system was more important. It was necessary to be able to perceive this work. They selected young officers - people who had never driven any type of transport before. This is a very unusual method of control, so we proceeded from the idea that previously acquired skills and habitual automatisms would not emerge. In the end, very good crews were created that did their job very well.

Do you remember your feelings when your development started working on the Moon? How it was?

It's an amazing feeling, but it goes away quickly. In general, delight and enthusiasm were universal. When the lunar rover started working on the Moon, many people appeared who wanted to see how it all happened. Can you imagine how interesting this is? They say that the minister asked to be given the opportunity to “steer,” and he was given such an opportunity. There were a huge number of lower-ranking bosses who wanted to feel involved in controlling the lunar rover.

Could this have harmed the mission?

The participation of outsiders in control was short-term and rather symbolic: they were allowed to send one or two commands under the supervision of the crew, nothing more.

After the journey of the first lunar rover, it became clear that it was not possible to completely imitate lunar conditions on Earth. Lunar soil - regolith - has very specific light-optical characteristics. At a certain angle, it reflects light well towards the light source. If the Sun shines directly from behind and at a small angle, then a bright spot is obtained in the near zone - greater illumination and no shadows are visible.

You can make a mistake, and this puts the driver in a tense state, he reduces the speed. In order for shadows to appear and the relief to be seen better, I had to turn it a little. Appropriate recommendations were given to those who plotted the route before each driving session, which lasted several hours. All accumulated experience was used to modernize Lunokhod-3. Unfortunately, it remained in history as a museum exhibit.

Why is there no video from the Moon?

We thought about it. From a technical point of view, it was difficult then, although it was possible, but today in general there are no problems. For example, the journey of Lunokhod 2 is reflected in more than 80 thousand frames and 86 panoramas. They can be used to make a beautiful documentary about a journey on the surface of the Moon. But at that time such a task was not considered a priority...

Now these shots are in the Space Information Archive and are waiting for their director - if only there was the desire and the means.

Do you remember how Lunokhod 2 ended its journey?

At the end of its journey, Lunokhod 2 found itself in a difficult “traffic situation”. He had to cross an old, badly damaged crater, which was common and had happened many times before during his journey. But one peculiarity emerged: an unusually large amount of regolith had accumulated at the bottom of this crater over many years. The wheels began to sink into the regolith, and Lunokhod 2 began to skid. The situation is well known to ordinary drivers when a car gets stuck in sandy soil. We decided to get out in reverse.

Lunokhod

Lunokhod

a transport device designed for movement on the surface of the Moon and controlled by radio from Earth. Scientific measuring equipment installed on the Lunokhod is designed to study the topographic and seleno-morphological features of the area, determine the chemical composition and physical and mechanical properties of the soil, study the radiation situation on the Moon, etc. With the help corner reflector, installed on the Lunokhod, laser ranging (measurements) was carried out from the Earth. The first lunar rover, Lunokhod-1, was delivered to the Moon on November 17, 1970 by the automatic spacecraft Luna-17. The mass of the lunar rover was 756 kg, length (with the lid open) - 4.42 m, width - 2.15 m, height - 1.92 m.

The Lunokhod consists of a sealed instrument compartment with equipment and a self-propelled one. The instrument compartment contains a thermal control system, receiving and transmitting radio equipment, remote control system and electronic equipment, and batteries. In the front part of the compartment there are windows of television cameras designed to control the movement of the lunar rover and transmit to Earth panoramas of the lunar surface and part of the starry sky, the Sun and the Earth. Highly directional and low-directional antennas for two-way radio communication with the Earth are mounted on the surface of the compartment. The compartment has a lid that is closed on a moonlit night, which prevents heat from escaping from the compartment. On the inner surface of the cover there are solar panels. In working condition, with the lid open, the batteries recharge the on-board batteries. The self-propelled chassis is designed to move on the surface of the Moon. It has 8 wheels (all driven), track – 1600 mm, wheel diameter – 510 mm, wheel width – 200 mm. Turning is carried out by decreasing or increasing the speed of rotation of the wheels of the right or left group. Controlling the lunar rover is significantly complicated by the fact that almost 4 seconds pass between the moment the operator at the control center receives the image of the “road” and the receipt of the command to the lunar rover. This obliges the crew to anticipate with some advance the possible direction of movement and obstacles in the path of the lunar rover. Lunokhod-1 covered 10,540 m and examined in detail the lunar surface over an area of ​​80,000 m². Using television systems, more than 200 panoramas and over 20,000 photographs of the lunar surface were obtained, the physical and mechanical properties of its surface were studied, and a chemical analysis of the soil was carried out. The active operation time of Lunokhod-1 was 301 days 6 hours 37 minutes. After the completion of the program, Lunokhod-1 was launched onto an almost horizontal platform, and it is supported by many years of laser ranging from the Earth. On January 16, 1973, using the automatic spacecraft Luna-21, Lunokhod-2 was delivered to the area of ​​the eastern edge of the Sea of ​​Clarity. Improved based on the experience of Lunokhod-1, with expanded capabilities, it covered 27 km on the surface of the Moon and transmitted a large amount of scientific information about the Moon to Earth.

Encyclopedia "Technology". - M.: Rosman. 2006 .

Synonyms:

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LUNOKHOD- an automatic self-propelled vehicle or controlled device for working and moving on the surface of the Moon. The world's first Lunokhod 1, controlled from the Earth, was manufactured in the Soviet Union and worked on the Moon for almost a year (from November 17, 1970 to... ... Big Polytechnic Encyclopedia

LUNOKHOD, the name of the Soviet unmanned vehicles launched to explore the surface of the Moon. In October 1970, the Luna 17 spacecraft was launched with Lunokhod 1, which passed along the lunar surface and collected and transmitted... ... Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary

LUNOKHOD, huh, husband. Automatic self-propelled vehicle with remote control, moving on the Moon. | adj. moonwalker, oh, oh. Ozhegov's explanatory dictionary. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 … Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

USSR postage stamp. 1973. Luna 21, Lunokhod 2, center for deep space communications "Lunokhod" a series of Soviet robotic planetary rovers for exploring the Moon. Lunokhod 1 is the first lunar self-propelled vehicle. Was delivered to the surface of the Moon on November 17, 1970... ... Wikipedia

Lunar self-propelled vehicle, a vehicle capable of moving independently on the surface of the Moon, or a vehicle for transporting astronauts and equipment on the surface of the Moon (see figure). L. were used for scientific research. research and how to transport... Big Encyclopedic Polytechnic Dictionary

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Lunokhod 1 was the first of two robotic vehicles to study the Moon as part of the Soviet Lunokhod program. The spacecraft that delivered Lunokhod 1 to the lunar surface was called Luna 17. Lunokhod-1 became the first controlled wheeled robot to operate outside the Earth. The launch date of the apparatus on the Moon is November 17, 1970. Lunokhod 2 was launched three years later.

"Lunokhod" is a transport device, automatically controlled, capable of moving on the Moon and designed to conduct lunar exploration.

When developing and creating the first automatic lunar rover, Soviet scientists and designers faced the need to solve a complex of complex problems. It was necessary to create a completely new type of machine, capable of functioning for a long time in unusual conditions of outer space on the surface of another celestial body.

Main goals:

• creation of an optimal engine with high cross-country ability with low weight and energy consumption, ensuring reliable operation and traffic safety;
• creation of remote control systems for the movement of the Lunokhod;
• ensuring the necessary thermal conditions using a thermal control system that maintains the temperature of the gas in the instrument compartments, the temperature of structural elements and equipment located inside and outside the sealed compartments (in outer space during periods of lunar days and nights), within specified limits;
• selection of power sources;
• materials for structural elements: development of lubricants and lubrication systems for vacuum conditions and much more.

The scientific equipment of the lunar rover was supposed to provide:

• study of the topography of the area;
• determination of the chemical composition and physical and mechanical properties of the soil;
• study of the radiation situation on the flight path to the Moon and on its surface;
• study of X-ray cosmic radiation;
• experiments on laser ranging of the Moon.

The first lunar rover - the Soviet “Lunokhod-1” was delivered to the Moon by the “Luna-17” spacecraft and worked on its surface for almost a year (from November 17, 1970 to October 4, 1971).

“Lunokhod-1” consists of two parts: a sealed instrument compartment with equipment and a self-propelled chassis. The mass of Lunokhod-1 is 756 kg, length (with the lid open) 4.42 m, width 2.15 m, height 1.92 m. The instrument compartment is used to accommodate the equipment of on-board systems and protect it from the influence of the external environment in space conditions . It has the shape of a truncated cone with convex upper and lower bottoms. The compartment body is made of magnesium alloys, providing sufficient strength and lightness. The upper bottom of the compartment is used as a radiator-cooler in the thermal control system and is closed with a lid. During the moonlit night, the lid closes the radiator and prevents heat from being removed from the compartment due to thermal radiation from the radiator. During the lunar day, the lid is open, and solar panels located on its inside recharge the batteries that supply the on-board equipment with electricity.

The instrument compartment houses thermal control systems, power supplies, receiving and transmitting devices of the radio complex, devices of the remote control system and electronic converter devices of scientific equipment. In the front part there are: TV camera windows, an electric drive of a movable highly directional antenna, which serves to transmit TV images of the lunar surface to Earth; a low-directional antenna that provides reception of radio commands and transmission of telemetric information, scientific instruments and an optical corner reflector made in France. The following are installed on the left and right sides: 2 panoramic telephoto cameras (in each pair, one of the cameras is structurally combined with a local vertical locator), 4 whip antennas for receiving radio commands from the Earth. An isotope source of thermal energy is used to heat the gas circulating inside the apparatus. Next to it is a device for determining the physical and mechanical properties of lunar soil.

Sharp temperature changes during the change of day and night on the surface of the Moon, as well as a large temperature difference between the parts of the apparatus located on the sunny side and in the shade, made it necessary to develop a special thermal control system. At low temperatures during the lunar night, to heat the instrument compartment, the circulation of coolant gas through the cooling circuit is automatically stopped and the gas is sent to the heating circuit.
The Lunokhod's power supply system consists of solar and chemical buffer batteries, as well as automatic control devices. The solar panel drive is controlled from the Earth; in this case, the cover can be installed at any angle ranging from 0 to 180°, necessary for maximum use of solar radiation.

The onboard radio complex ensures the reception of commands from the Control Center and the transmission of information from the vehicle to the Earth. A number of radio complex systems are used not only when working on the surface of the Moon, but also during the flight from Earth to the Moon. Two TV systems of the Lunokhod are used to solve independent problems. The low-frame television system is designed to transmit to Earth TV images of the terrain necessary for the crew controlling the movement of the lunar rover from the Earth. The possibility and feasibility of using such a system, which is characterized by a lower image transmission rate compared to the broadcast television standard, was dictated by specific lunar conditions. The main one is the slow change of the landscape as the lunar rover moves. The second TV system is used to obtain a panoramic image of the surrounding area and photograph areas of the starry sky, the Sun and the Earth for the purpose of astro-orientation. The system consists of four panoramic telephoto cameras.

The self-propelled chassis is designed to move the rover along the surface of the Moon. Chassis characteristics: number of wheels - 8 (all driven); wheelbase - 170 mm; track - 1600 mm; wheel diameter along the lugs - 510 mm; wheel width - 200 mm. The chassis is designed in such a way that the lunar rover has high maneuverability and operates reliably for a long time with minimal dead weight and electricity consumption. The chassis allows the Lunokhod to move forward (with two speeds) and backward, and to turn in place and while moving. It consists of a chassis (elastic suspension and propulsion), an automation unit, a traffic safety system, a device and a set of sensors for determining the mechanical properties of the soil and assessing the cross-country ability of the chassis. Turning is achieved by varying the speed of rotation of the wheels on the right and left sides and changing the direction of their rotation. Braking is carried out by switching the chassis traction motors to electrodynamic braking mode. To hold the lunar rover on slopes and bring it to a complete stop, electromagnetic-controlled disc brakes are activated. The automation unit controls the movement of the lunar rover using radio commands from the Earth, measures and controls the main parameters of the self-propelled chassis and the automatic operation of instruments for studying the mechanical properties of lunar soil. The traffic safety system ensures automatic stopping of the lunar rover at extreme angles of roll and trim and overload of the electric motors of the wheels. A device for determining the mechanical properties of lunar soil allows you to quickly obtain information about the movement. The distance traveled is determined by the number of revolutions of the driving wheels under ground conditions. To take into account their slipping, a correction is made, determined using a freely rolling ninth wheel, which is lowered to the ground by a special drive and raised to its original position. The vehicle is controlled from the Deep Space Communications Center by a crew consisting of a commander, driver, navigator, operator, and flight engineer.

The driving mode was selected as a result of an assessment of television information and promptly received telemetric data on roll, trim, distance traveled, condition and operating modes of wheel drives. In conditions of space vacuum, radiation, significant temperature changes and difficult terrain along the route, all systems and scientific instruments of the lunar rover functioned normally, ensuring the implementation of both the main and additional programs of scientific research of the Moon and outer space, as well as engineering and design tests.

“Lunokhod-1” examined in detail the lunar surface over an area of ​​80,000 m2. Using TV systems, more than 200 panoramas and over 20,000 surface images were obtained. The physical and mechanical properties of the surface soil layer were studied at more than 500 points along the route, and its chemical composition was analyzed at 25 points. The distance traveled was 10 km 540 m. The duration of active operation of Lunokhod-1 was 301 days 6 hours 37 minutes; the shutdown was caused by the depletion of its isotope heat source resources. At the end of the work, it was placed on an almost horizontal platform in a position in which the corner reflector ensured long-term laser location of it from the Earth.

On January 16, 1973, using the automatic station “Luna-21,” Lunokhod-2 was delivered to the area of ​​the eastern edge of the Sea of ​​Serenity (the ancient Lemonier crater). The landing area was chosen to obtain new data about the complex junction zone of the lunar “sea” and “continent”. Improvements in the design and on-board systems, as well as the installation of additional instruments and expansion of equipment capabilities, made it possible to significantly increase maneuverability and carry out a large amount of scientific research. Over 5 lunar days, in conditions of difficult terrain, Lunokhod-2 covered a distance of 37 km.

Structure of “Lunokhod-2” (“Luna-21”) (operating time of the device from 01/16/1973 to 05/09/1973)
"Lunokhod-2" ("Luna-21") 1 Magnetometer. 2 Low directional antenna. 3 Highly directional antenna. 4 Antenna pointing mechanism. 5 Solar battery (converts solar radiation energy into electricity to recharge chemical batteries). 6 Hinged lid (closed during movement and during a moonlit night). 7 Panoramic telephoto cameras for horizontal and vertical viewing. 8 Isotope thermal energy source with a reflector and a ninth wheel for measuring the distance traveled (at the rear of the device). 9 Soil intake device (in folded position). 10 Whip antenna. 11 Motor-wheel. 12 Sealed instrument compartment. 13 Soil chemical composition analyzer “Rifma-M” (X-ray spectrometer) in the folded position. 14 Stereoscopic pair of television cameras with hoods and dust covers. 15 Optical corner reflector (made in France) 16 Television camera with hood and dust cover.

Source:Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978.

Russia's lunar program

“After all, in twenty years, one of the three of us will definitely die - either the emir, or the donkey, or me. And then go figure out who knew theology better!” I decided to summarize the information received at numerous conferences, symposiums and from personal conversations. By the end of the year, the Federal Space Program 2016-2025 will be adopted. Whatever is included in this program receives funding. Of course, changes can be made during the course of work, however, they are usually associated with new implementation deadlines, and not with an increase in funding. All plans for the period beyond 2025 are nothing more than “funny pictures”. Just the wishes of scientists, engineers and officials.


At the first stage (this is what is specified in the FKP), our natural satellite is going to be studied only with the help of automatic stations. In 2019, the Luna 25 (or Luna-Glob) probe is scheduled to land on the Boguslavsky crater, which is located in the south polar region of the Moon. Luna 25 is a prototype probe for training. We need to re-learn how to build automatic interplanetary stations, learn to land on the Moon. However, about 20-25 kg of scientific instruments will still be placed on it. Despite the test nature, the mission is unique - for the first time the probe will land in the polar region of the Moon. It was there that orbital neutron detectors discovered traces of hydrogen (read: water ice) in the regolith. And not only in shaded craters (probes will not land there - there is no Sun for solar panels and communication with the Earth), but also nearby. The next device is an orbital one - “Luna-26” (or “Luna-Resurs-1 orbital”). Reconnaissance from orbit, relay and a very interesting experiment LORD (Lunar Orbital Radio Detector). The next station should start in 2021. If something goes wrong, the FKP plans to repeat the mission in 2023. The large lander Luna-27 (or Luna-Resurs-1 landing) is scheduled to land in the south polar region of the Moon in 2023. On board there will be up to 50 kg of instruments, including a European drill for “cryogenic” (so that “volatile” particles do not evaporate from the soil) drilling. They are again considering the possibility of placing a mini-rover on Luna 27. Once upon a time, they were going to put ““ as such a rover. If the 2023 mission is unsuccessful, they plan to repeat the landing in 2025. The last lunar probe in the FCP 2016-2025 is Luna-28 (Luna-Resurs-2 or Luna-Grunt) - a heavy probe (up to 3t ) - is launched, apparently on "Angar A5" with an oxygen-kerosene upper stage DM-03, and serves to deliver soil from the southern polar region of the Moon. "Luna-29" - a large lunar rover with a "cryogenic" drill - is in the wishes scientists, but is absent from the FKP - which means it will be implemented already in the 25th year.

In addition to automatic interplanetary stations, at the first stage of the lunar program, numerous research projects will be carried out on the topic of the lunar transport system and lunar infrastructure. The money for them is deposited in the FKP. Money has also been earmarked for the development of a super-heavy rocket. Only for development - not for creation “in metal”!

Flight tests of the new Russian spacecraft PTK NP should begin in 2021. They are also included in the Federal Space Program. In 2021 and 2022, the new spacecraft will fly to the ISS twice in an unmanned version. It is supposed to be launched into orbit using the “Angara A5” (possibly in a shortened version - without URM II).

In 2023, something interesting awaits us - one Angara A5 will launch the PTK NP into orbit, and the second will launch the DM-03 oxygen-kerosene upper stage, equipped with a docking unit. After docking, the bunch will fly around the Moon (without entering lunar orbit).

Also in 2023, it is planned to send to the Moon (in lunar orbit) a prototype tug with low-thrust engines and a large cargo container (cargo - 10 tons) - will it be the famous “nuclear tug” or something equipped with large solar panels? The first option seems more logical, however, in some pictures you can see the second - with solar panels. The prototype will have a capacity of 0.3-0.5 MW - 2-3 times less than a megawatt complex.

The tug will drag the container to the Moon for two whole years. As cargo - either a module of a lunar orbital station or an automatic prototype of a manned landing vehicle.

In 2024, the PTK NP should go into space for the first time in a manned version and deliver cosmonauts to the ISS or to the so-called PPOI - a promising manned orbital infrastructure consisting of one scientific and energy module, a “kolobok” module, an inflatable habitable module, a slipway module and one or two free-flying OKA-T-2 modules.

And so - second half of 2024 - for the first time - a manned flight around the Moon by Russian cosmonauts. Again two Hangars A5 and DM-03 for acceleration to the Moon. The flyby will be repeated in 2025.

Then the FKP ends and not just dreams, but real fantasies begin. In 2027, a super-heavy rocket should begin flying with a payload in low Earth orbit of about 80 (or even 90) tons. In the first launch, it will send an unmanned PTK NP into lunar orbit.

At the end of 2027, a large megawatt (or even more powerful!) tug with low-thrust engines should bring a cargo weighing 20 tons into lunar orbit in 7-8 months. Moreover, the tug itself is launched by a super-heavy rocket, and the cargo by “Angara A5”. As cargo - an orbital station module or a heavy probe/landing scientific platform.

In 2028, a landing module for a manned expedition should be launched to the Moon on a super-heavy rocket. In 2029, the PTK NP with its crew will go to it. But the two spacecraft will dock in near-lunar orbit - but the crew will not land on the Moon - this flight is only a rehearsal for the expedition.

It is interesting that from the 28th to the 30th it is planned to implement the “Moon - Orbit” program. A reusable takeoff and landing probe will be sent to the Moon, and a fuel tanker will be sent to lunar orbit. The probe will be able to deliver soil samples from the surface to the PTK NP (which is in lunar orbit).

In 2030, the second landing module will launch, and a little later - the PTK NP with a crew. Russian cosmonauts will set foot on the lunar surface for the first time - 60 years after the Americans!

In parallel with manned expeditions, it is planned to begin the deployment of a so-called “lunar test site” in the south polar region of the Moon, which will include automatic scientific instruments, telescopes, prototypes of devices for using lunar resources, etc. The test site will be visited - once a year, astronauts will fly there for a couple of weeks to change photographic plates and repair equipment.

Construction of the base is planned for the period after 2040, a flight to Mars (based on lunar experience and lunar resources) - in the 50s. Before the 50s, it is planned to deliver soil from Phobos (already to the FKP - before the 25th) and Mars (~ 30-35), create an assembly complex at the Lagrange point for reusable ships that will fly along the Earth-Mars route, build a fleet “nuclear tugs” - the electrical power of the reactors of the Martian complex is from 4 MW and above.

This is what, according to the designers of RSC Energia, the lunar base should look like.

Overall, something resembling a strategy is finally presented. True, the timing is absolutely insane - the 30th year is very far away. Linking the program to the heavy PTK NP and the super-heavy rocket - which does not exist and will not exist for another 10-15 years. Money for its creation (not development, but creation) is not included in the FCP 2016-2025.

The combination of humans and automata is not thought out at all (where is the control of rovers from orbit without signal delay, for example?). And the automatic missions themselves until 2025 are not very interesting (even normal lunar rovers are not planned, not to mention lunar rovers). The lunar orbital station appears in the plans and then disappears. In the “extreme” version, it seems that it was abandoned after all. The “nuclear tug”, the pride of Russia, is not a key element of the program.

Again, on two chairs - this is not a “flag on the Moon at any cost” (everything is taking too long - the state will have a desire to “jump out of the lunar train, which is crawling every now and then”) and not the Moon is a resource base (there is no sensible reusable lunar transport system , fuel/energy generation from local resources is not stated as a priority).

Since no one has canceled the principle of “criticizing - suggesting”, I present to your attention :) The first manned launches to the Moon within the framework of our proposal are planned for 2022. And this is a very realistic timeframe - if the country’s leadership shows political will. .

Selenokhod- a project to study the Moon using a landing module and a lunar rover, developed by a Russian team as part of the Google Lunar X PRIZE competition since October 2007. Initially, the weight of the lunar rover was 15 kg, but during the development process it dropped to 5. On May 1, 2013, the first prototype of the lunar rover was presented and tested at the American base MRDS (Mars Desert Research Station), simulating the landscape conditions of Mars, somewhat similar to the lunar ones. On December 18, 2013, the Selenokhod project was closed due to the lack of sponsors and investors.

November 17 marks 40 years since the first lunar self-propelled vehicle, Lunokhod-1, was delivered to the Moon.

On November 17, 1970, the Soviet automatic station "Luna-17" delivered to the surface of the Moon the self-propelled vehicle "Lunokhod-1", intended for comprehensive studies of the lunar surface.

The creation and launch of a lunar self-propelled vehicle became an important stage in the study of the Moon. The idea of ​​creating a lunar rover was born in 1965 at OKB-1 (now RSC Energia named after S.P. Korolev). Within the framework of the Soviet lunar expedition, the Lunokhod was given an important place. Two lunar rovers were supposed to examine in detail the proposed lunar landing areas and act as radio beacons during the landing of the lunar ship. It was planned to use the lunar rover to transport the astronaut on the lunar surface.

The creation of the lunar rover was entrusted to the Machine-Building Plant named after. S.A. Lavochkin (now NPO named after S.A. Lavochkin) and VNII-100 (now OJSC VNIITransmash).

In accordance with the approved cooperation, the Machine-Building Plant named after S.A. Lavochkin was responsible for the creation of the entire space complex, including the creation of the lunar rover, and VNII-100 was responsible for the creation of a self-propelled chassis with an automatic motion control unit and a traffic safety system.

The preliminary design of the lunar rover was approved in the fall of 1966. By the end of 1967, all design documentation was ready.

The designed automatic self-propelled vehicle "Lunokhod-1" was a hybrid of a spacecraft and an all-terrain vehicle. It consisted of two main parts: an eight-wheeled chassis and a sealed instrument container.

Each of the 8 wheels of the chassis was driven and had an electric motor located in the wheel hub. In addition to the service systems, the instrument container of the lunar rover contained scientific equipment: a device for analyzing the chemical composition of lunar soil, a device for studying the mechanical properties of soil, radiometric equipment, an X-ray telescope and a French-made laser corner reflector for point-by-point distance measurement. The container had the shape of a truncated cone, and the upper base of the cone, which served as a radiator-cooler for heat release, had a larger diameter than the lower one. During the moonlit night, the radiator was closed with a lid.

The inner surface of the cover was covered with solar cells, which ensured recharging of the battery during the lunar day. In the operating position, the solar panel could be located at different angles within 0-180 degrees in order to optimally use the energy of the Sun at its different heights above the lunar horizon.

The solar battery and chemical batteries working in conjunction with it were used to supply electricity to numerous units and scientific instruments of the lunar rover.

In the front part of the instrument compartment there were windows of television cameras designed to control the movement of the lunar rover and transmit to Earth panoramas of the lunar surface and part of the starry sky, the Sun and the Earth.

The total mass of the lunar rover was 756 kg, its length with the solar battery cover open was 4.42 m, width 2.15 m, height 1.92 m. It was designed for 3 months of operation on the surface of the Moon.

On November 10, 1970, a three-stage Proton-K launch vehicle launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome, which launched the Luna-17 automatic station with the Lunokhod-1 automatic self-propelled vehicle into an intermediate circular near-Earth orbit.

Having completed an incomplete orbit around the Earth, the upper stage put the station on a flight path to the Moon. On November 12 and 14, planned corrections to the flight trajectory were carried out. On November 15, the station entered lunar orbit. On November 16, flight path corrections were made again. On November 17, 1970, at 6 hours 46 minutes 50 seconds (Moscow time), the Luna-17 station safely landed in the Sea of ​​Rains on the Moon. It took two and a half hours to inspect the landing site using telephotometers and deploy the ramps. After analyzing the surrounding situation, a command was issued, and on November 17 at 9:28 a.m., the Lunokhod-1 self-propelled vehicle slid onto the lunar soil.

The Lunokhod was controlled remotely from Earth from the Center for Deep Space Communications. A special crew was prepared to control it, which included a commander, driver, navigator, operator and flight engineer. For the crew, military personnel were selected who had no experience in driving vehicles, including mopeds, so that earthly experience would not dominate when working with the lunar rover.

The selected officers underwent a medical examination almost the same as cosmonauts, theoretical training and practical training at a special lunodrome in Crimea, which was identical to the lunar terrain with depressions, craters, faults, and a scattering of stones of various sizes.

The Lunokhod crew, receiving lunar television images and telemetric information on Earth, used a specialized control panel to issue commands to the Lunokhod.

Remote control of the Lunokhod's movement had specific features due to the operator's lack of perception of the movement process, delays in the reception and transmission of television image commands and telemetric information, and the dependence of the mobility characteristics of the self-propelled chassis on movement conditions (relief and soil properties). This obliged the crew to anticipate with some advance the possible direction of movement and obstacles in the path of the lunar rover.

Throughout the first lunar day, the crew of the lunar rover adjusted to the unusual television images: the picture from the Moon was very contrasting, without penumbra.

The device was controlled in turns, the crews changed every two hours. Initially, longer sessions were planned, but practice showed that after two hours of work the crew was completely “exhausted.”

During the first lunar day, the landing area of ​​the Luna-17 station was studied. At the same time, the Lunokhod systems were tested and the crew gained driving experience.

For the first three months, in addition to studying the lunar surface, Lunokhod-1 also carried out an application program: in preparation for the upcoming manned flight, it practiced searching for the landing area for the lunar cabin.

On February 20, 1971, at the end of the 4th lunar day, the initial three-month work program of the lunar rover was completed. An analysis of the state and operation of on-board systems showed the possibility of continuing the active functioning of the automatic apparatus on the lunar surface. For this purpose, an additional program for the operation of the lunar rover was drawn up.

The successful operation of the spacecraft lasted 10.5 months. During this time, Lunokhod-1 traveled 10,540 m, transmitted 200 telephotometric panoramas and about 20 thousand low-frame television images to Earth. During the survey, stereoscopic images of the most interesting features of the relief were obtained, allowing for a detailed study of their structure.

Lunokhod-1 regularly carried out measurements of the physical and mechanical properties of the lunar soil, as well as chemical analysis of the surface layer of the lunar soil. He measured the magnetic field of various parts of the lunar surface.

Laser ranging from the Earth of the French reflector installed on the lunar rover made it possible to measure the distance from the Earth to the Moon with an accuracy of 3 m.

On September 15, 1971, at the onset of the eleventh lunar night, the temperature inside the sealed container of the lunar rover began to drop, as the resource of the isotope heat source in the night heating system was exhausted. On September 30, the 12th lunar day arrived at the lunar rover’s site, but the device never made contact. All attempts to contact him were stopped on October 4, 1971.

The total time of active operation of the lunar rover (301 days 6 hours 57 minutes) was more than 3 times greater than that specified in the technical specifications.

Lunokhod 1 remained on the Moon. Its exact location was unknown to scientists for a long time. Almost 40 years later, a team of physicists led by Professor Tom Murphy from the University of California, San Diego, found Lunokhod 1 in images taken by the American Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) and used it for a scientific experiment to find inconsistencies in the General Theory of Relativity developed by Albert Einstein. For this study, scientists needed to measure the Moon's orbit to the nearest millimeter, which is done using laser beams.

On April 22, 2010, American scientists were able to “grope” the corner reflector of the Soviet apparatus using a laser beam sent through the 3.5-meter telescope at the Apache Point Observatory in New Mexico (USA) and receive about 2 thousand photons reflected “ Lunokhod-1".

The material was prepared based on information from open sources

On November 17, 1970, the Soviet space program took another epochal step - Lunokhod 1 traveled its first meters on the extraterrestrial surface. The unique device could safely be called a real miracle of technology, and Soviet engineers rightfully considered it to some extent revenge for America’s loss in the “Lunar Race”. How was the lunar rover developed and who exactly controlled it?

In the 1960-1970s, the USSR tried to conquer the closest satellite of the Earth not with manned, but with automatic vehicles. One of the initiators of space exploration by interplanetary stations, probing of the Moon and planets of the Solar System was the head of the Institute of Applied Mathematics of the USSR Academy of Sciences, President of the Academy of Sciences Mstislav Keldysh. Back in January 1958, the chief space theorist Keldysh proposed to the founder of practical cosmonautics, Korolev, to develop several scientific and technical projects for the exploration of the Moon by spacecraft.

Soon, a document “On the launch of space objects in the direction of the Moon” appeared - the so-called Program “E”, which included eight projects at the first stage. Among them is the E8 project - the delivery to the Moon of a mobile research vehicle controlled from the Earth.

Soviet scientists studied the moon carefully. We were the first to photograph its far side (Luna-3, 1958), make a soft landing on the lunar surface (Luna-9, 1966), and create the first artificial satellite of the Moon (Luna-10, 1966) and even deliver regolith samples to Earth (“Luna-16”, 1970). Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences Mikhail Marov considers the unique flights of lunar spacecraft to be truly epoch-making, which ensured the automatic collection and return of lunar soil to Earth and the long-term operation of self-propelled vehicles on the lunar surface - two Soviet lunar rovers.

“The successful implementation of these projects at the very beginning of the 1970s made it possible, to a certain extent, to mitigate the negative consequences of our lost lunar race to land the first man on the Moon,” says Mikhail Yakovlevich. “I remember the complex feelings that overwhelmed me when I watched Neil Armstrong walk onto the lunar surface - a combination of pride in the triumph of human genius along with a feeling of frustration and bitterness that it was not us who did it.” But Academician Marov is convinced that lunar automata allowed us, as they say, to save face and get results that the country is rightfully proud of today.

Chassis for lunar rover

In the process of creating the world's first planetary reconnaissance rover, it was necessary to solve a lot of unique problems - to develop the lunar rover chassis, a remote control system, and the design of a landing platform. These tasks were set back in the early 1960s by chief designer S.P. Korolev, who himself selected the performers.

For example, he initially proposed developing a chassis for a planetary rover to the tank design bureau of the Kirov plant (Leningrad), where they prepared three versions of the chassis - based on tracked, wheeled and wave (snake-like) propulsion. However, the chief designer of the design bureau, Zhores Kotin, having assessed the scale of the work, refused to further develop the extraterrestrial vehicle. The reason is compelling: you shouldn’t scatter your efforts so as not to damage the main business - tank building.

They tried to entrust the development of the chassis to the Scientific Automotive and Tractor Institute, but the leadership of NATI also did not dare to develop a “moon tractor”.

Korolev’s final choice fell on VNII-100 (later VNIITransmash). Work on the chassis began in the summer of 1963 under the scientific supervision of Alexander Kemurdzhian. This Leningrad scientist and designer became one of the fathers of the creators of the self-propelled lunar vehicle.

Sergei Korolev, assessing the chassis options developed by the Kemurdzhian team, said: “When creating space objects, the most important thing is reliability! You shouldn't take records. It is unknown how to control a car from Earth, how materials and lubricants will behave in the vacuum of space. Therefore, it is necessary to reduce driving parameters - speed and maximum mileage. It is necessary for the lunar rover to travel at least ten kilometers on the Moon and at low speed. We must ensure that the failure of any of the systems does not affect the overall operation of the machine as a whole.”

In March 1965, Korolev abandoned the creation in his OKB-1 of unmanned spacecraft for exploring near and deep space and transferred this work to the machine-building plant named after S. A. Lavochkin (now NPO named after Lavochkin). The factory design bureau was headed by Georgy Babakin, who took up the work on the lunar machine as a whole.

Chief designer Babakin signed the technical specifications for the Lunokhod chassis on June 18, 1966. The choice of propulsion - a wheel or a caterpillar, a walking or jumping method of turning, functioning in conditions of vacuum and ubiquitous dust, with a huge temperature difference - this is a small list of problems that had to be solved when developing the chassis. And the created eight-wheeled propulsion device of the Soviet planetary rover could be called a real miracle of technology.

The frame of each wheel is made of three titanium rims covered with stainless steel mesh and equipped with titanium lugs. Each wheel with its own drive is a motor-wheel, as they are also called. Elastic suspension - beam torsion bars without a central rod, made of titanium alloy. Each propulsion device has a pyrotechnic device for unlocking the wheel - if it suddenly jams while moving on the Moon. Even the Kharkov Bicycle Plant participated in the creation of the chassis - they carried out balancing and “spokening” of the wheels.

First - go!

Lunokhod-1 consisted of two main parts: a self-propelled chassis and a sealed instrument compartment with a hinged lid - a solar panel.

On November 18, 1970, newspapers of the Soviet Union and the world media duplicated the TASS report about the beginning of the lunar mission. It was reported that “the movement of Lunokhod-1 is controlled from the Center for Long-Distance Space Communications (DSC) using television information about the position of the vehicle and the nature of the relief of the surrounding lunar surface.”

The very next day, TASS reported that the rover could not do without human intervention. The message dated November 19 said that in the process of work it was decided to “develop a method for controlling a self-propelled automatic vehicle... The telesurveillance and radio telemetry system allowed the operators controlling the Lunokhod from the CDSC to confidently guide the self-propelled vehicle along the route, control the passage of obstacles and monitor the condition of the on-board systems.” .

The veil of secrecy was lifted - the lunar rover has drivers. Their multi-stage selection and further training in the skills of driving a lunar “SUV” took place in the strictest secrecy.

Out of nearly fifty candidates, only eleven remained. Without names or surnames, they were presented on the pages of the Pravda newspaper, publishing a report from the lunar rover control center at the Simferopol Center for Deep Space Communications: “These are young, fit guys in blue elegant sports suits with badges on the lapels of their shirts - ruby ​​pentagons with embossed letters USSR "(by the way, these badges were purchased for his comrades by Vyacheslav Dovgan, the driver of the second crew).

The first and then the second lunar rover were controlled by the crews of two teams, working alternately. Each team consists of five: commander, driver, navigator, flight engineer and highly directional antenna operator.

“The shift lasted two hours,” recalls Vyacheslav Dovgan. “The commander, driver and operator of the highly directional antenna were sitting nearby. Only they could directly influence the movement of the lunar rover. And the flight engineer and navigator were nearby, they were plotting the route on the map and doing calculations. Two hours later, the second crew took control. Then we changed again - and so on for nine to ten hours.”

It was difficult to imagine that the lunar rover was being controlled by a person who was located from the vehicle... at a distance of about 400,000 kilometers! The main difficulty was the speed of updating the picture on the monitor in front of the driver. “The propagation time of radio waves from the Earth to the Moon is almost 1.3 seconds,” says Vyacheslav Dovgan. - It takes the same amount of time for a television image to travel from the Moon to the Earth. Therefore, the lunar rover responded to the driver’s commands with a delay. But that wasn't the main problem."

To control the movement of the Lunokhod, the chief designer of radio systems, Mikhail Ryazansky, proposed using a low-frame television system. “The transmission of images from the lunar rover cameras to Earth was only called television,” continues Dovgan. - In fact, the driver saw a picture in front of him on the television screen that resembled successive frames of a black and white filmstrip.

Ryazansky's system provided for the transmission not of 25 frames per second, as is the usual television standard, but of one frame with a time fixation of three to twenty seconds - communication channels and computing machines of that time could not provide faster data transmission. After detecting an obstacle, the car continued to move for at least another eight seconds, so the usual speed of the lunar rover was no more than two to three kilometers per hour.”

Nikolai Eremenko, commander of crew No. 1, recalled the first session with the lunar rover: “The Luna-17 station made a soft landing in the Sea of ​​Rains area, and we began the first such unusual watch in the history of astronautics. The chief designer of the lunar rover was with us. We peered at the panorama of the Moon obtained with the help of television cameras. It extended in front and behind the Lunokhod - calm, relatively flat, very similar to one of the areas of the Lunodrome where we trained. The navigating group suggested the option of getting off - forward. I looked at Gennady Nikolaevich Babakin, and then commanded: “First - forward!”

On November 17, 1970, at 9 hours 27 minutes 07 seconds, driver Gabdulkhai Latypov moved the knob on the control panel forward one notch and pressed the corresponding button. The “There is movement” banner lit up, and after 20 seconds “Lunokhod-1” touched the surface of the Moon.

The life cycle of the lunar rover is three months, or three lunar days. This is exactly how long the first lunar rover was allocated to carry out the planned program on the surface of the Moon, but the self-propelled vehicle actively existed much longer.

A lunar day is equal to almost fifteen Earth days, a day on the Moon is almost a month on Earth. More precisely, 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes and 3 seconds. Lunokhod-1 spent 11 lunar days on the Moon - until mid-September 1971. During this time, he was able to travel 10,540 meters, transmitting 211 lunar panoramas and 25 thousand images to Earth.

The fate of Lunokhod-2 was less successful - on its way it found itself in a difficult “traffic situation”, overcoming a heavily destroyed crater. This is business as usual for the rover and its crews; they overcame a lot of obstacles during the journey. But at the bottom of this particular crater a significant amount of lunar dust has accumulated. The wheels sank into the regolith and the rover began to skid. He finally made it out of the crater, but due to unforeseen maneuvers, the lid, covered with solar panels, and the cooling radiator were dusted with lunar dust. This led to an increase in temperature inside the lunar rover and a decrease in the battery charging current. He did not survive the next lunar night (two earthly weeks) - they could not wake him up from Earth...

“It was sad, but not tragic,” says its driver Vyacheslav Dovgan, “after all, Lunokhod-2 exceeded its task many times over.”

In 2013, twelve lunar craters were named after the commanders, drivers, navigators, flight engineers and operators of the first and second crews. Craters appeared on the map of the Moon: “Nikolya” and “Igor” (commanders Nikolai Eremenko, Igor Fedorov); “Gena” and “Slava” (drivers Gabdulkhai Latypov, Vyacheslav Dovgan); “Kostya” and “Vitya” (navigators Konstantin Davidovsky, Vikenty Samal); “Lenya” and “Albert” (flight engineers Leonid Mosenzov, Albert Kozhevnikov); “Valera” and “Kolya” (directional antenna operators Valery Sapranov, Nikolay Kozlitin). Two more craters “Borya” and “Vasya” received the names of an honorary crew member, head of the operational scientific group from the USSR Academy of Sciences Boris Nepoklonov and reserve driver Vasily Chubukin.

“Unfortunately, the country has lost the positions where it was in the lead during Babakin’s time,” says Mikhail Marov, a leading Russian scientist in the field of studying the solar system. - The stations created by Babakin’s team, the design and engineering solutions embodied in them, still amaze the imagination with their significance, originality and boldness of technical solutions. “Alas, we have not launched spacecraft to the Moon and planets for decades.”

Of course, the Lavochkin NGO has projects, including those aimed at exploring the Moon. For example, “Luna-Glob” (with a soft landing) or “Luna-Grunt” (with the delivery of lunar soil from the region of the South Pole of the Moon). The launch date of the first facility is 2019, the second – 2025.

And “Lunokhod-1” and “Lunokhod-2” remained on the Moon - they stand there as eternal monuments to Soviet science.